1. Bell Task: Discuss socio-cultural research that relates to cognition (learning/memory) 2. Discussion 3.1 3. HW: Finish Learning Outcome Questions and Post. Finish Reading 3.2
I'm hoping that this is where we post our learning outcomes for 3.1.
3.1 Learning Outcome E The schema theory, in relation to cognitive processes, argues that information is mentally represented through a web of beliefs, knowledge and expectations and is thus properly organized for storage. Schemas also allegedly influence the perception of memories. In this way, the typical human being would draw upon their schema to recall past stories and those denouements to form assumptions as to the resolution of a movie that they're currently watching. Likewise, schemas and pre-formed expectations can be expanded to regulate relationships, our predictions of personalities and reactions influencing our interpretation of another being. As schemas seem to cause people to percieve situations rather than unbiasedly observe, distortions in memory recall arise. Contextually, a “distortion” may mean a gap in memory filled by what the brain assumes (relying on schemas) may have happened based on past patterns noticed. However, some psychologists (Cohen 1993) argue that the working definition of a schema is too vague and the acquisition of schemas amorphous. Other psychologists rely greatly on schemas, using the theory as a foundation for their theories (Multi-store model of memory, working memory model, etc.) So as to explore the theory of the mind pruning memories to fit past patterns (which eventually lead to schemas), Bartlett (1932) conducted an experiment involving the summarization of another culture's story. Participants were asked to read a Native American legend and, upon being asked to reproduce the story, it was found that problems in an accurate retelling would occur. The plot of the legend was unfamiliar in Western culture and the story became severely shortened and altered, the distorted points being reminiscent of popular Western stories. Thus, participants altered the legend to fit into their schemas of how a story should go. That the brain systematically processes information based on patterns of events and goes on to interpret future situations in relation is the staple of schema theory and most of cognitive sciences.
Explain the use of technology in investigating cognitive processes.
Technologies that are used in modern psychology to investigate cognitive processes are neuro-imaging techniques that allow the researchers to look at images of the brain functioning in real time. The invaluable information gathered from these tests helps researchers connect various parts of the brain and brain functions with biological behavior.
PET- Positron Emission Tomography, is one technique of measuring important functions in the brain. A PET can be used to locate tumors and memory disorders due to disease (Alzheimer's). It's able to do this because it can identify metabolic changes on a cellular level in an organ or tissue. The new wave of technology is so helpful that scientists can diagnose a disease like Alzheimer's before the patient has and symptoms or is aware of it themselves. Scientists are able to detect early stages of Alzheimer's because of the combination of the PET scan and computer technology developed by New York University School of Medicine, that scans the hippocampus (important brain structure in the formation and recollection of memory).
MRI- Magnetic Resonance Imaging, another technique that gives the researcher a 3-D view of the patients brain, through observing changes in oxygen level in the blood. When an area of the brain is more active it uses more oxygen than other parts, and that is how the researchers see which parts of the brain are used during different cognitive tasks.
Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process with reference to research studies.
The multi-store model of memory was suggested by researchers Arkinson and Shiffrin in 1968. The model is known for being one of the most influential models we have today in terms of informational processing. The working memory model was constructed based on the multi-store model. The multi-store model consisted of separate memory stores that use processes like attention, coding, and rehearsal in order to operate with the permanent memory store. The model used sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory, each serving its own purpose. In 1974, researchers Baddeley and Hitch suggested the working memory model. They didn’t believe that short-term memory was a single store, but rather, that short-term memory uses processes such as slave-systems, attentional control through automatic levels and supervisory attentional levels. In order to prove their suggestion, Baddeley and Hitch performed a research study where they tested dual-task techniques. Their participants were asked to read prose and understand it, and at the same time, remember a list of numbers. They found that it was easier for the participants to remember numbers in sequences of three. They also found that even though there was harm, it was not disastrous. This became evidence that short-term memory has more than one store. By Elyana Feldman
Evaluate the extent to which a cognitive process is reliable.
A focus on determining if a cognitive process is reliable is based on memory. Memory may not be as reliable as we think because it can be influenced by other factors than what happened in the first place. So basically, it's not that reliable. This is due to reconstructive nature, which is the brain's active processing of information to make sense of the world. Sigmund and Freud thought that forgetting was caused by repression, which is people who experience intense emotional and anxiety- provoking events use defense mechanisms to protect themselves from knowing things they cannot cope with. They send dangerous memories to unconscious, so they deny the event ever happened. Also, false memories can be created by post-event information. For example, in 2002, when people were asked what kind of car a murderer was driving, they all believed they saw the murderer in a white van, because someone else mentioned a white van earlier, therefore a false memory has been created, based on the post event information. Another example how memory is not as reliable as we think is based on the concept of serial reproduction. That is, when one person reproduces the original story, the second person reproduces the first persons reproduction, and so on. Like the process of rumors/gossip being spread and a legend being told from generation to generation. When a story gets reproduced, it usually comes out shorter, the story remains coherent, and it becomes more conventional (retained details we could relate to/ past experience). People try to reconstruct the past by fitting it into their existing schemas. Another example is eyewitness testimony. The nature of the question can influenve the witnesses' memory. Leading questions (suggestive) and post-event information can influence the accuracy of recall, shown in Loftus and Palmer. They asked a group who watched a car crash video to estimate the speed in which they hit each other. Wanting to see if a leading question affects recall, they changed one word in the question, how fast were the cars going when they hit each other? So the word hit was replaced with smashed/collided. The results, yes, recall of the video was affected by changing one word. The different words activated different schemas in memory. BUT, in another study, Yuille and Cutshall, they interviewed people who witnessed a real robbery and determined that changing one word in a question does not make a difference in memory. They criticized Loftus's lack of ecological validity because it was not real life, being in a lab.
Discuss how and why particular research methods are used by cognitive reseachers.
Cognitive researchers use several methods of research to try to understand the cognitive schema. For many years researchers favored lab experiments because they could use highly controlled variables to isolate a single cognitive process. An example of this would be the Lotus and Palmer car collision experiments. By having all the participants look at the same crash and using highly operational zed questionnaires afterward they were able to isolate the connection between the wording of questions and memory. However, this experiment, and many like it, were accused of being too artificial. The accusers said that it would be more effective to use field studies where they could use real life disasters in people’s memories instead of videos. One of these experiments was Yuille and Cutshall with their robbery experiments. Unlike the car crash results, these participants showed a high degree of accuracy regardless of the question asked, supporting the claim that lab experiments gave artificial results. The last form of research that cognitive researchers use is Case Studies. Researchers look for people with abnormal cognitive processes and study them for a period of time to try to discover the source of the abnormalities. The case of Clive Wearing is a perfect example of one of these case studies. By studying him they were able to discover the relationship between memory and the Hippocampus. All of these research forms have their uses and cognitive researchers always have to consider which method will work best for their study.
One example of how cultural factors affect a cognitive process is with schemas and memory. Schemas are basically networks of various knowledge that you have collected. These networks, or what we already know, will affect the output and processing of information. If some information is missing, the brain uses other schemas to fill in the blanks. This can result in distortions, or mistakes. One study that represents the relationship between schema and memory was completed by Frederic Bartlett. In his research, he asked participants to read through a Native American legend twice. He then asked the participants to reproduce the story a few times. Bartlett found that the story got longer, was always coherent, but, most relevant to our question, he also found that some information was replaced. Only details that the participants could relate to were remembered. The people being studied reconstructed the story by using their existing schemas, which caused the story to be more relatable to the cultural background of the participant.
Discuss Ethical Considerations related to research studies at the cognitive level of analysis.
Ethics have been among the most debated subjects in psychology. For example, the Hetherington and Ranson study, in which they lesioned the hypothalami of rats might have been construed as unethical, as there was no way of knowing the potential harm and pain inflicted upon the animals. Such invasive techniques, including ablation (removal of brain tissue) so that the animal slowly loses its ability to perform set tasks raises serious ethical concerns because once again, the harm and pain factor is unpredictable, and the damage done cannot be reversed. In Clive Wearing's case, however, ethical concerns were not violated because his wife had given permission for the use of his name in the study. Clive Wearing contracted a brain infection known as herpes encephalitis, which caused his to experience every waking moment to be the first moment of waking. The trauma ensued when the doctors diagnosed him with both anterograde (inability to store memory after trauma) and retrograde (inability to recall memories that have been stored prior to the trauma) amnesia. Normally, in a study like this, the naming of individuals is not the usual course of action taken when discussing the results of the study, as in most cases where the participant has given up sensitive information, the names of the participants must remain anonymous so as to protect their identities from being figured out by those reading the study. However, in this case, no ethics were violated because his wife had given permission.
A. Outline principles that define the cognitive level of analysis.
One of the fundamental principles of cognitive psychology is that human being are information processors and that mental processes guide behaviour. Researchers have created models and theories to describe how people think and how they behave. As mentioned in Dweck, this part of the section deals with how mindset is important in predicting the future behaviour. Also, under the section of mental processes, researchers have found that people's memories may not be as infallible as they think because of the reconstructive nature of the memory. Researchers have found that people do not always store the memories that they have originally experienced, and while retrieving these memories they have tampered and changed them thus creating false memories, as individuals cannot distinguish between reality and the reality they have created. A second principle of cognitive psychology is that the mind can be studied scientifically by developing theories and using a number of scientific research methods. The demonstration of this is described in theories and models of cognition which are discussed and continuously tested. Scientists most of the time use scientific methods and use laboratory experiments where then the ecological validity of such studies are questioned because certain behaviours cannot be reproduced in an artificial methods. Since the ecological validity has been brought up about cognitive research, researchers have been studying cognition in the labs and in the every day life. The third principle that defines the cognitive level of analysis is that cognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural factors. A British psychologist Bartlett coined the term schema to it which defines as a mental representation of knowledge. He was interested how cultural schemas influence remembering and he found that people had problems remembering a story from another culture and that they reconstructed the story to fit in with their own cultural schemas. His research demonstrated that memory is not like a recording machine but rather individuals remember in terms of meaning and what makes sense to their unique sense and thats how subject gets distorted.
I'm hoping that this is where we post our learning outcomes for 3.1.
ReplyDelete3.1 Learning Outcome E
The schema theory, in relation to cognitive processes, argues that information is mentally represented through a web of beliefs, knowledge and expectations and is thus properly organized for storage. Schemas also allegedly influence the perception of memories. In this way, the typical human being would draw upon their schema to recall past stories and those denouements to form assumptions as to the resolution of a movie that they're currently watching. Likewise, schemas and pre-formed expectations can be expanded to regulate relationships, our predictions of personalities and reactions influencing our interpretation of another being. As schemas seem to cause people to percieve situations rather than unbiasedly observe, distortions in memory recall arise. Contextually, a “distortion” may mean a gap in memory filled by what the brain assumes (relying on schemas) may have happened based on past patterns noticed. However, some psychologists (Cohen 1993) argue that the working definition of a schema is too vague and the acquisition of schemas amorphous. Other psychologists rely greatly on schemas, using the theory as a foundation for their theories (Multi-store model of memory, working memory model, etc.) So as to explore the theory of the mind pruning memories to fit past patterns (which eventually lead to schemas), Bartlett (1932) conducted an experiment involving the summarization of another culture's story. Participants were asked to read a Native American legend and, upon being asked to reproduce the story, it was found that problems in an accurate retelling would occur. The plot of the legend was unfamiliar in Western culture and the story became severely shortened and altered, the distorted points being reminiscent of popular Western stories. Thus, participants altered the legend to fit into their schemas of how a story should go. That the brain systematically processes information based on patterns of events and goes on to interpret future situations in relation is the staple of schema theory and most of cognitive sciences.
3.1 J
ReplyDeleteExplain the use of technology in investigating cognitive processes.
Technologies that are used in modern psychology to investigate cognitive processes are neuro-imaging techniques that allow the researchers to look at images of the brain functioning in real time. The invaluable information gathered from these tests helps researchers connect various parts of the brain and brain functions with biological behavior.
PET- Positron Emission Tomography, is one technique of measuring important functions in the brain. A PET can be used to locate tumors and memory disorders due to disease (Alzheimer's). It's able to do this because it can identify metabolic changes on a cellular level in an organ or tissue. The new wave of technology is so helpful that scientists can diagnose a disease like Alzheimer's before the patient has and symptoms or is aware of it themselves. Scientists are able to detect early stages of Alzheimer's because of the combination of the PET scan and computer technology developed by New York University School of Medicine, that scans the hippocampus (important brain structure in the formation and recollection of memory).
MRI- Magnetic Resonance Imaging, another technique that gives the researcher a 3-D view of the patients brain, through observing changes in oxygen level in the blood. When an area of the brain is more active it uses more oxygen than other parts, and that is how the researchers see which parts of the brain are used during different cognitive tasks.
3.1 F
ReplyDeleteEvaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process with reference to research studies.
The multi-store model of memory was suggested by researchers Arkinson and Shiffrin in 1968. The model is known for being one of the most influential models we have today in terms of informational processing. The working memory model was constructed based on the multi-store model. The multi-store model consisted of separate memory stores that use processes like attention, coding, and rehearsal in order to operate with the permanent memory store. The model used sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory, each serving its own purpose. In 1974, researchers Baddeley and Hitch suggested the working memory model. They didn’t believe that short-term memory was a single store, but rather, that short-term memory uses processes such as slave-systems, attentional control through automatic levels and supervisory attentional levels. In order to prove their suggestion, Baddeley and Hitch performed a research study where they tested dual-task techniques. Their participants were asked to read prose and understand it, and at the same time, remember a list of numbers. They found that it was easier for the participants to remember numbers in sequences of three. They also found that even though there was harm, it was not disastrous. This became evidence that short-term memory has more than one store.
By Elyana Feldman
3.1 I
ReplyDeleteEvaluate the extent to which a cognitive process is reliable.
A focus on determining if a cognitive process is reliable is based on memory. Memory may not be as reliable as we think because it can be influenced by other factors than what happened in the first place. So basically, it's not that reliable. This is due to reconstructive nature, which is the brain's active processing of information to make sense of the world. Sigmund and Freud thought that forgetting was caused by repression, which is people who experience intense emotional and anxiety- provoking events use defense mechanisms to protect themselves from knowing things they cannot cope with. They send dangerous memories to unconscious, so they deny the event ever happened. Also, false memories can be created by post-event information. For example, in 2002, when people were asked what kind of car a murderer was driving, they all believed they saw the murderer in a white van, because someone else mentioned a white van earlier, therefore a false memory has been created, based on the post event information. Another example how memory is not as reliable as we think is based on the concept of serial reproduction. That is, when one person reproduces the original story, the second person reproduces the first persons reproduction, and so on. Like the process of rumors/gossip being spread and a legend being told from generation to generation. When a story gets reproduced, it usually comes out shorter, the story remains coherent, and it becomes more conventional (retained details we could relate to/ past experience). People try to reconstruct the past by fitting it into their existing schemas. Another example is eyewitness testimony. The nature of the question can influenve the witnesses' memory. Leading questions (suggestive) and post-event information can influence the accuracy of recall, shown in Loftus and Palmer. They asked a group who watched a car crash video to estimate the speed in which they hit each other. Wanting to see if a leading question affects recall, they changed one word in the question, how fast were the cars going when they hit each other? So the word hit was replaced with smashed/collided. The results, yes, recall of the video was affected by changing one word. The different words activated different schemas in memory. BUT, in another study, Yuille and Cutshall, they interviewed people who witnessed a real robbery and determined that changing one word in a question does not make a difference in memory. They criticized Loftus's lack of ecological validity because it was not real life, being in a lab.
3.1 D
ReplyDeleteDiscuss how and why particular research methods are used by cognitive reseachers.
Cognitive researchers use several methods of research to try to understand the cognitive schema. For many years researchers favored lab experiments because they could use highly controlled variables to isolate a single cognitive process. An example of this would be the Lotus and Palmer car collision experiments. By having all the participants look at the same crash and using highly operational zed questionnaires afterward they were able to isolate the connection between the wording of questions and memory. However, this experiment, and many like it, were accused of being too artificial. The accusers said that it would be more effective to use field studies where they could use real life disasters in people’s memories instead of videos. One of these experiments was Yuille and Cutshall with their robbery experiments. Unlike the car crash results, these participants showed a high degree of accuracy regardless of the question asked, supporting the claim that lab experiments gave artificial results. The last form of research that cognitive researchers use is Case Studies. Researchers look for people with abnormal cognitive processes and study them for a period of time to try to discover the source of the abnormalities. The case of Clive Wearing is a perfect example of one of these case studies. By studying him they were able to discover the relationship between memory and the Hippocampus. All of these research forms have their uses and cognitive researchers always have to consider which method will work best for their study.
3.1 H
ReplyDeleteOne example of how cultural factors affect a cognitive process is with schemas and memory. Schemas are basically networks of various knowledge that you have collected. These networks, or what we already know, will affect the output and processing of information. If some information is missing, the brain uses other schemas to fill in the blanks. This can result in distortions, or mistakes.
One study that represents the relationship between schema and memory was completed by Frederic Bartlett. In his research, he asked participants to read through a Native American legend twice. He then asked the participants to reproduce the story a few times. Bartlett found that the story got longer, was always coherent, but, most relevant to our question, he also found that some information was replaced. Only details that the participants could relate to were remembered. The people being studied reconstructed the story by using their existing schemas, which caused the story to be more relatable to the cultural background of the participant.
Discuss Ethical Considerations related to research studies at the cognitive level of analysis.
ReplyDeleteEthics have been among the most debated subjects in psychology. For example, the Hetherington and Ranson study, in which they lesioned the hypothalami of rats might have been construed as unethical, as there was no way of knowing the potential harm and pain inflicted upon the animals. Such invasive techniques, including ablation (removal of brain tissue) so that the animal slowly loses its ability to perform set tasks raises serious ethical concerns because once again, the harm and pain factor is unpredictable, and the damage done cannot be reversed.
In Clive Wearing's case, however, ethical concerns were not violated because his wife had given permission for the use of his name in the study. Clive Wearing contracted a brain infection known as herpes encephalitis, which caused his to experience every waking moment to be the first moment of waking. The trauma ensued when the doctors diagnosed him with both anterograde (inability to store memory after trauma) and retrograde (inability to recall memories that have been stored prior to the trauma) amnesia. Normally, in a study like this, the naming of individuals is not the usual course of action taken when discussing the results of the study, as in most cases where the participant has given up sensitive information, the names of the participants must remain anonymous so as to protect their identities from being figured out by those reading the study. However, in this case, no ethics were violated because his wife had given permission.
A. Outline principles that define the cognitive level of analysis.
ReplyDeleteOne of the fundamental principles of cognitive psychology is that human being are information processors and that mental processes guide behaviour. Researchers have created models and theories to describe how people think and how they behave. As mentioned in Dweck, this part of the section deals with how mindset is important in predicting the future behaviour. Also, under the section of mental processes, researchers have found that people's memories may not be as infallible as they think because of the reconstructive nature of the memory. Researchers have found that people do not always store the memories that they have originally experienced, and while retrieving these memories they have tampered and changed them thus creating false memories, as individuals cannot distinguish between reality and the reality they have created. A second principle of cognitive psychology is that the mind can be studied scientifically by developing theories and using a number of scientific research methods. The demonstration of this is described in theories and models of cognition which are discussed and continuously tested. Scientists most of the time use scientific methods and use laboratory experiments where then the ecological validity of such studies are questioned because certain behaviours cannot be reproduced in an artificial methods. Since the ecological validity has been brought up about cognitive research, researchers have been studying cognition in the labs and in the every day life. The third principle that defines the cognitive level of analysis is that cognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural factors. A British psychologist Bartlett coined the term schema to it which defines as a mental representation of knowledge. He was interested how cultural schemas influence remembering and he found that people had problems remembering a story from another culture and that they reconstructed the story to fit in with their own cultural schemas. His research demonstrated that memory is not like a recording machine but rather individuals remember in terms of meaning and what makes sense to their unique sense and thats how subject gets distorted.